Gender, ethnicity and social class issues in higher education Essay

Gender, ethnicity and social class issues in higher education - Essay Example Most governments emphasize on equal opportunity for all in education attainment and stern actions are taken against those found discriminating students. The question that begs answers is therefore, if there is equal education opportunity, why do issues of gender, ethnicity and social class matter or why do they continue to bog down the education system? According to Ball (2006) such education policies just contribute to a meritocratic education system. This view is supported by the Virginia university teaching resource center (2004) which believes that such classifications influence â€Å"what we teach, how we teach and how students learn’ and that â€Å"gender equality is taken for granted but it is not yet a reality.† In view of this, this paper will discuss how socio-economic, national identity, gender and English proficiency affect student behavior or faculty behavior towards students. To start with, the socio-economic factors will be discussed. These include the c hallenges faced by students from low socio-economic background such as emotional and social challenges, acute and chronic stressors, cognitive lags and health and safety issues that affect participation rates and educational achievement. It will then look at gender issues such as gender stereotyping and their effects on education after which it will look at issues of national identity and language proficiency faced by international students and their effects on students as well as faculty behavior. Lastly, a short summary will be made. Society is divided into various classes of citizens; the upper, middle and lower class. These represent the hierarchical ordering of society especially due to the emergence of the capitalistic mode of production. Karl Marx often criticized this mode of production for many societal problems and for bringing about exploitation of some people by others, that is, exploitation of working class by the dominant ruling class or capitalists (Morrison, 2006). Emile Durkheim on the other hand, blamed this system for eroding family values and morals but he believed the division of labor in society was the key to enhance social solidarity which had been dismantled by the system. It helps to move from mechanical to organic solidarity but at the same time division of labor may also result in classification of people into high class and low classes depending on their occupations (Morrison, 2006). For examples, professionals such as accountants or lawyers are considered as from high classes while cl erks are in the low social class. Individual identity in modern system is defined by what one does rather than what one is. Paid employment is thus very crucial in defining identity and determining the future of individuals especially where work ethic is emphasized. Education being the key to employment is thus very vital in society and determines what people become in future and can also affect social mobility. This is the reason why issues of equality and equity in education provision are the center of education policies. According to Weis and Dolby (2012) social class determines most aspects of our lives such as which schools to attend and even influences participation in education, academic achievement and student interactions. This view is supported by Jensen (2009) who asserts that students from different socio-economic status bring into the education system their experiences which

Beatrice and Catherine Essay Example for Free

Beatrice and Catherine Essay At the beginning of the scene Beatrice and Catherine are attempting to make the atmosphere relaxed, by diverting the conversation away from Rodolfo, onto subjects that they believe will not give Eddie any reason to confront Rodolfo. Eddie however is unable to restrain from showing his contempt for Rodolfo. He does this by shouting at Rodolfo because Rodolfo said lemons are green which is not even remotely offensive to anyone. Eddie replies by saying for Christs sake this suggests that eddies is annoyed that Rodolfo who he regards as an inferior corrected him this is because for Christs sake is a religious swearword. Beatrice reacts to this situation by again changing the conversation to another subject. Eddie then begins to antagonize Marco by suggesting that his wife may have been un-loyal to him. Eddie does this by saying I betcha theres plenty of surprises. Marco responds to this situation by showing his confidence and trust in his wife he says no no the women wait. Eddie shows his anger towards Rodolfo by pouncing on the situation. On the previous page Rodolfo says its more strict in our town its not so free. Eddie uses this statement as an excuse to let out his anger. Eddie says drag off some girl the word girl suggests that he is talking about Catherine whilst the word drag tells us that Rodolfo is taking her out against her will. This however is not true so Beatrice says he didnt exactly drag her off . Marco reacts by cautiously agreeing, as if he suspects that Eddie might drag him into something, to everything Eddie says. At the top of page 39 there I an awkwardness which has bean caused by eddies statement at the end of page 38 in which he says but I understood Marco that you was coming here to make a living for your family. This obviously annoys Marco because as we have read earlier he stressed the fact that he misses his wife tremendously. The audience expects the awkwardness to be resolved by a further change in conversation by either Beatrice or Catharine. The characters on stage by doing the exact opposite that the audience expects. Catharine decides to incise the situation by saying you wanna dance, Rodolfo. After Catharine says this Eddie shows his disappointment by freezing as if he can not believe what he has just heard. Rodolfo who had been instructed by Marco to keep Eddies best interests at heart refuses. Beatrice is the only character to recognize that if Eddie was not present Rodolfo would jump at the chance to dance with Catharine so she gives Rodolfo some much needed encouraged by saying go ahead dance Rodolfo. Eddies speech and actions on the top half of page 40 increase the dramatic tension because whilst he sarcastically talks about how lucky Rodolfo is he is unconsciously twisting the newspaper up and then tearing it into two. This gives us the impression that Eddie imagines the newspaper as Rodolfo and therefore is doing to the newspaper what he wants to do to Rodolfo. Eddies real intentions are reveled in the stage direction he is weirdly elated, rubbing his fists into his palms this suggests that Eddie is massaging his fists as people usually do before getting into a fight this gives me the impression that Eddie wants to beat up Rodolfo. The dramatic tension increases on pg 40 and 41 of eddies sudden change of attitude towards Rodolfo. Instead of criticizing Rodolfo at every available opportunity like he has done earlier on in the play he begins to become friendlier towards him. The dramatic tension also increases because of eddies sudden decision to teach Rodolfo how to box . When Eddie punches Rodolfo the characters react in many different ways Catherine rushes towards Rodolfo in order to see if he is all right. Beatrice dosents see anything but the sportsmanship but nevertheless decide that for the moment that is enough. Eddie reacts by suggesting that he and Rodolfo should box again but whilst saying this he is uncouncensioly rubbing his fists together this suggests that he cannot wait to beat up Rodolfo again. The effect of eddies punching of Rodolfo is that become certain that something big will happen soon because they realize the true hatred inside Eddie. When Marco challenges Eddie to lift up the chair Eddie reacts by taking marcos challenge as a joke . the audience however realize that marco is trying to tell eddie that although he respects him when it comes down to the wire blood is thicker then water and that he will not hesitate to defend his brother Rodolfo. The action on page 42 reflects the change of power in the carbone household because the carbone household now ujnderstand that Marco is the most powerful person in the house. Miller ends act 1 in what is a fundamental scene of the play this is because it shows the transfer of power. Also this scene is important because it ends in a sort of mini-cliffhanger which increases the audiences expectations that something will happen when the curtains rise again.

James Joyces Ulysses :: James Joyce Ulysses Poem Essays

James Joyce's Ulysses "There's five fathoms out there.... A sail veering about the blank bay waiting for a swollen bundle to bob up, roll over to the sun a puffy face, saltwhite. Here I am" (18). If "Old Father Ocean" (42) is Proteus (Gifford 46), god of "primal matter" (32) corresponding with a viridian tinge of primal soup as well as the tide that washes in the ruined flotsam and jetsam of man's voyages, it makes some kind of sense that there is no corresponding symbolic organ to this episode. We are in the protean realm of the non-organic, or rather unorganized and de-organized matter. The aforementioned bobbing corpse is of course more than a homicide case in Joyce's symbology. The corpse lost to sea's rot and "bladderwrack" is the body of Proteus manifest in a disturbing (dead) human form, bloated and dissolving. It is there to intimately remind us of our eventual return to unformed matter, to entropy at its extreme. This disintegration will lead to a chaotic reintegration with the Ocean, unfathomabl e body of energy, crusher of bodies washed to shore, carried to the sandflats of Dublin via "Cock Lake." Proteus harbingers the "seachange" (42) of all organisms, all matter; the corpse also manifests the "Seadeath, mildest of all deaths" (42), "soft as the hand of mist" (Book XI of The Odyssey). "Full fathom five thy father lies" (41): Father Ocean or Proteus as the drowned, absent father, hidden body of "coral" and "pearls" (The Tempest), always in the "sea change... rich and strange" (ibid.). This macabre dance of matter and energy is witnessed in the undead movement of the corpse "driving before it a drift of rubble" (41), an indeterminate mass of preterite matter. He will rise again "sunk though he be beneath the watery floor" (41). He is a "bag of corpsegas," porous, "a spongy titbit." In his undead, coral-like growth, matter transforms according to unpredictable, heretical logic, which Dedalus is compelled to read as he does "signatures of all things... seaspawn and seawrack, the nearing tide, that rusty boot" (31). This logic only a poet could follow, or perhaps it is simply poetic creation: "God becomes man becomes fish becomes barnacle goose becomes featherbed mountain" (41-2). This fabulation of the chain of being is certainly profane, or at least outside the accepted, predictable logic of any catechism. Ocean is God as an immanent storm and flux; the abstract, ethereal God of Christendom is more ascetic, barren, removed.

Presidency Essay -- Essays Papers

Presidency Although it is often said that the President of the United States holds the most powerful office in the world, this does not mean that he is able to decide very much for himself. The American Constitution, which was adapted in 1789, clearly states the Separation of Powers. Thus, the president makes up only one third of the government, namely the executive branch. He is also controlled by a complex system of checks and balances, which makes sure that he (or any of the other branches, for that matter) does not become too powerful. We will now have a look at the different problems which may be facing a recently elected president, and then discuss to what extent his powers are important. The first and foremost problem is that the president does not necessarily have a majority in Congress behind him. As the American system of government is non-parliamentary, the president is elected by the people, not by Congress, Thus there may very well be, as there is at the moment, a Democrat as president, with a Republican majority in Congress. The president will then have to do a lot of negotiation and adaptation, to be able to get new laws through Congress. He will not be able to follow the politics entirely of his own liking. But even if the president is supported by a majority in Congress, this does not mean that everything is necessarily fine. Since there are only two important parties in the USA, the representatives from each group make up a far from homogenous mass. Conservative Democrats may very well support the Republicans in many cases, and liberal Republicans may support the Democrats. President Clinton experienced the trouble connected to this in the years 1993-94, when he faced a Democrat, but nevertheless relu... ...e power of the President (sic)is great if he can use it; but it is a moral power, a power activated by persuasion and discussion." The president will always have to co-operate in order to achieve something. If conflicts arise between him and Congress, for example, trouble is in the horizon. This happened in 1995, when President Clinton refused to sign the national budget proposed by Congress. The entire government came to a stand still for a couple of weeks, and then Congress had to back off. They were not strong enough to override Clinton's veto (they would have needed a 2/3 majority). And of course, as already mentioned, the president exercises an immense influence on political life. Therefore, despite all the elements which may pester his existence, the president could rightly be called the most powerful man of the US, and thus, in today's situation, of the world.

Banking Formalities

BANKING FORMALITIES : SUCH AS NEGOTIATION OF DOCUMENTS Negotiation means the standard procedures that bank performs which includes checking of the documents and giving value to the seller. The issuing bank may issue the LC available by negotiation with a nominated bank or it may allow the LC to be freely negotiated with any bank. In the first case, the beneficiary, that is the seller, has to present the documents only to that bank, which is the nominated bank.Nevertheless, the nominated bank is not bound to negotiate if it has not undertaken a separate payment obligation to the seller. The nominated bank may simply refuse to negotiate the documents drawn under the LC. This is because, by having been nominated by the issuing bank, it does not constitute and undertaking to negotiate. If, however, the nominated bank has added its confirmation to the LC at the request of the issuing bank, thereby undertaking a separate payment obligation to the seller, then it has to honour its undertak ing and pay for the documents drawn under the LC if they are in order (Article 9b).LC which does not nominate any bank is normally available for negotiation with any bank in the country of the seller which is willing to negotiate the documents. For the information of all traders, there are 4 types of negotiation practiced by banks around the world. They are: 1. Negotiation without recourse 2. Negotiation with recourse 3. Negotiation against indemnity 4. Negotiation under reserve Let me explain Negotiation without recourse first and the rest at a later posting.A seller may present his documents drawn under LC directly to either a) The issuing Bank (bank that issues the LC) or b) The confirming bank (bank that adds its confirmation at the request of the issuing bank) or c) To his own bank If the seller chooses to present the documents directly either to the ISSUING BANK or to the CONFIRMING BANK, these banks make payment WITHOUT RECOURSE to him. Meaning, the payment that has been paid to the seller shall not in any way become claimable by these banks in the event the documents are found not in order after making such payment.These banks cannot have recourse to the seller because by issuing or confirming the LC, they have taken upon themselves the risk that the party from whom reimbursement is to be obtained may become insolvent. I hope this would give traders a general idea of how the LC operates and the implications to buyer and seller. BANKING FORMALITIES :OBTAINING PACKING CREDIT AND POST SHIPMENT FINANCE Packing Credit : Overview Packing credit is a loan/ cash credit facility sanctioned to an exporter in the Pre-Shipment stage.This loan facilitates the exporter to purchase raw materials at competitive rates and manufacture or produce goods according to the requirement of the buyer and organize to have it packed for onward export.. The lending institutions seek a Letter of Credit opened in favour of the exporter from the overseas buyer along with the irrevoca ble (cannot be canceled once drawn) Purchase Order favouring the exporter. Packing Credit facility will cover all the working capital needs of the exporter including raw materials, wages, packing costs and all pre-shipment costs.Packing credit is available for generally a period of 90 days and the exporter has to pay lower rate of interest compared to traditional Overdraft or Cash Credit facility. Exporters use this facility so they can bid the most competitive price for export thus gaining more business opportunities for export. Packing Credit : Documents The borrower and/or the guarantors have to provide the following documents to the banks or the lending institutions while submitting Packing credit Application. Certain documents may be demanded by the bank or the lending institutions in post sanction phase or on periodical basis. Address Proof : Latest Electricity/Telephone Bill or Receipt of Maintenance Charges or Valid Passport or Voter’s Identity Card or Purchase/Lease Deed/ Leave & License Agreement of Residence or Office Premises. * Identity Proof : Valid Passport, PAN Card, Voter’s Card, Any other photo identification issued by Government Agencies. * Business Proof : VAT/CST Registration No. or MIDC Agreement or SSI Permanent Registration Certificate or Warehouse Receipts or Shop & Establishment Act Certificate or Copy of Lease Agreement along with the latest Rent paid Receipt. * Business Profile on Company’s Letterhead. Partnership deed in case of partnership firms. * Certificate of incorporation, Date of Commencement of Business and Memorandum of Title Deeds, Form 32 in for Addition or Deletion of Directors in case of companies. * Last three years Trading, Profit & Loss A/c. and Balance Sheets (duly signed by a Chartered Accountant wherever applicable). * Last one years’ Bank statement of the Firm. * If existing loan, then sanctioning letter and repayment schedule of the same. * Firm/Company’s PAN Cards. * Individu al Income Tax Returns of the Individual/Partners/Directors for last three years. Last one years’ Bank statement of Individuals, Partners, Directors . * SEBI formalities in case of listed companies. * Share Holding pattern of Directors duly certified by a Chartered Accountant. * List of the Existing Directors of the company from the Registrar of the Companies. Packing Credit : Process 1. Personal interview /discussions is held with the customers by the bank’s officials. 2. Bank's Field Investigation team visits the business place/work place of the applicant. (All the documents submitted are verified by the bank with the originals so as to ensure the authenticity of the same. 3. Bank verifies the track record of the applicant with the common information sharing bureau (CIBIL). 4. In case of fresh projects the bank analyses the back ground of the applicant/firm/company and the Technical feasibility/financial viability of the project based on various parameters and also th e existing market conditions. 5. Depending on the size of the project the file is put up for sanction to the appropriate level of authority. SANCTION AND DISBURSEMENT : 1. On approval/sanction, the sanction letter ,is issued specifying the terms and conditions for the disbursement of the loan.The acceptance to the terms of sanction is taken From the Applicant. 2. The processing charges as specified by the bank have to be paid to proceed further with the disbursement procedure. 3. The documentation procedure takes place viz. Legal opinion of various property documents and also the valuation reports. (Original Documents to title of the immovable assets are to be submitted) 4. All the necessary documents as specified by the legal dept. , according to the terms of sanction of the loan of the bank are executed.Disbursement of the loan takes place after the Legal Dept. Certifies the Correctness of execution document Post shipment finance Pre-shipment is also referred as â€Å"packing cre dit†. It is working capital finance provided by commercial banks to the exporter prior to shipment of goods. The finance required to meet various expenses before shipment of goods is called pre-shipment finance or packing credit DEFINITION: Financial assistance extended to the exporter from the date of receipt of the export order till the date of shipment is known as pre-shipment credit.Such finance is extended to an exporter for the purpose of procuring raw materials, processing, packing, transporting, warehousing of goods meant for exports. IMPORTANCE OF FINANCE AT PRE-SHIPMENT STAGE: * To purchase raw material, and other inputs to manufacture goods. * To assemble the goods in the case of merchant exporters. * To store the goods in suitable warehouses till the goods are shipped. * To pay for packing, marking and labelling of goods. * To pay for pre-shipment inspection charges. * To import or purchase from the domestic market heavy machinery and other capital goods to produce export goods. To pay for consultancy services. * To pay for export documentation expenses. FORMS OR METHODS OF PRE-SHIPMENT FINANCE: 1. Cash Packing Credit Loan: In this type of credit, the bank normally grants packing credit advantage initially on unsecured basis. Subsequently, the bank may ask for security. 2. Advance Against Hypothecation: Packing credit is given to process the goods for export. The advance is given against security and the security remains in the possession of the exporter. The exporter is required to execute the hypothecation deed in favour of the bank. . Advance Against Pledge: The bank provides packing credit against security. The security remains in the possession of the bank. On collection of export proceeds, the bank makes necessary entries in the packing credit account of the exporter. 4. Advance Against Red L/C: The Red L/C received from the importer authorizes the local bank to grant advances to exporter to meet working capital requirements relating to processing of goods for exports. The issuing bank stands as a guarantor for packing credit. 5. Advance Against Back-To-Back L/C:The merchant exporter who is in possession of the original L/C may request his bankers to issue Back-To-Back L/C against the security of original L/C in favour of the sub-supplier. The sub-supplier thus gets the Back-To-Bank L/C on the basis of which he can obtain packing credit. 6. Advance Against Exports Through Export Houses: Manufacturer, who exports through export houses or other agencies can obtain packing credit, provided such manufacturer submits an undertaking from the export houses that they have not or will not avail of packing credit against the same transaction. . Advance Against Duty Draw Back (DBK): DBK means refund of customs duties paid on the import of raw materials, components, parts and packing materials used in the export production. It also includes a refund of central excise duties paid on indigenous materials. Banks offer pre-shipme nt as well as post-shipment advance against claims for DBK. 8. Special Pre-Shipment Finance Schemes: * Exim-Bank’s scheme for grant for Foreign Currency Pre-Shipment Credit (FCPC) to exporters. * Packing credit for Deemed exports. SOME SCHEMES IN PRE-SHIPMENT STAGE OF FINANCE . PACKING CREDIT SANCTION OF PACKING CREDIT ADVANCES: There are certain factors, which should be considered while sanctioning the packing credit advances viz. 1. Banks may relax norms for debt-equity ratio, margins etc but no compromise in respect of viability of the proposal and integrity of the borrower. 2. Satisfaction about the capacity of the execution of the orders within the stipulated time and the management of the export business. 3. Quantum of finance. 4. Standing of credit opening bank if the exports are covered under letters of credit. 5.Regulations, political and financial conditions of the buyer’s country. DISBURSEMENT OF PACKING CREDIT: After proper sanctioning of credit limits, the disbursing branch should ensure: To inform ECGC the details of limit sanctioned in the prescribed format within 30 days from the date of sanction. a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To complete proper documentation and compliance of the terms of sanction i. e. creation of mortgage etc. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There should be an export order or a letter of credit produced by the exporter on the basis of which disbursements are normally allowed.In both the cases following particulars are to be verified: 1. Name of the Buyer. 2. Commodity to be exported. 3. Quantity. 4. Value. 5. Date of Shipment / Negotiation. 6. Any other terms to be complied with. 2. FOREIGN CURRENCY PRE-SHIPMENT CREDIT (FCPC) * The FCPC is available to exporting companies as well as commercial banks for lending to the former. * It is an additional window to rupee packing credit scheme ; available to cover both the domestic i. e. indigenous ; imported inputs. The exporter has two options to avail him of export finance. To avail him of pre-shipment credit in rupees ; then the post shipment credit either in rupees or in foreign currency denominated credit or discounting /rediscounting of export bills. * To avail of pre-shipment credit in foreign currency ; discounting/rediscounting of the export bills in foreign currency. * FCPC will also be available both to the supplier EOU/EPZ unit and the receiver EOU/EPZ unit. Pre-shipment credit in foreign currency shall also be available on exports to ACU (Asian Clearing Union) countries with effect from 1. 1. 1996.Eligibility: PCFC is extended only on the basis of confirmed /firms export orders or confirmed L/C’s. The â€Å"Running account facility will not be available under the scheme. However, the facility of the liquidation of packing credit under the first in first out method will be allowed. Order or L/C : Banks   should not   insist  Ã‚   on   submission   of   export  Ã‚   order   or   L/C   for   every disbursement  Ã‚  Ã‚   of   pre-shipment  Ã‚   credit , from exporters  Ã‚   with consistently  Ã‚   good   track   record. Instead, a system of periodical submission of a statement of L/C’s or export orders in hand, should be introduced.Sharing of FCPC: Banks may extend FCPC to the manufacturer also on the basis of the disclaimer from the export order. Export Finance HSBC is a market leader in Export Finance, recognised through annual Dealogic surveys. Through a team of professionals in strategic locations globally, Export Finance arranges medium- and long-term financing for HSBC clients in the public and private sector across the globe buying capital goods and services. Finance can cover marine assets, aircraft, power generation equipment, infrastructure development, manufacturing equipment, oilfield services and a host of other goods and services.Export Finance also features regularly in the financing of limited recourse projects, as a project financing tool. Export Finance uses gove rnment guarantee programmes, Export Credit Agencies (ECAs), in an exporting country to credit enhance the financing to the buyer, thereby achieving highly competitive pricing for the buyer. It also allows borrowers to access a new pool of risk capital, often with appetite for extended tenors relative to traditional bank financing. Export Finance provides structuring, arranging, documentation and distribution services for clients in relation to almost all ECAs.

Multi-Narrative Essay Example

Multi Multi-Narrative Essay Multi-Narrative Essay How Collins portrays Victorian attitudes will also be examined in this essay. Not much Is revealed about MISS. Clack In any of the narratives apart from hers. Collins gives her a voice for a specific reason. Through her he can criticism the other characters without criticizing them directly and this gives more depth to the novel. In Footbridges first narrative we learn very little about Miss. Clack but his narrative introduces us to the character of Miss. Clack. As we know very little about her it creates a sense of suspense, as she becomes another part of the puzzle of who stole he Diamond. In her narrative we get an Insight to what Miss. Clack Is really like. She Is shown to have a curious nature, as she says, l waited for a minute or two, more than a minute or two. This is said when Miss. Clack is considering who had entered the house. Because of her curiosity and suspicion, the reader Is also curious and suspicious. What Miss. Clack discovered was Geodesys proposal to Rachel. If Collins had not set the style as a multi-narrative structure then this important piece of information would not have been revealed to us. No other character Is as curious as Goodbye than Clack, so she Is the only one who found out about his proposal. She also keeps enquiring throughout the narrative about the secret which Rachel and Mr.. Brief hold. This makes the reader suspicious as to what information is being withheld from Clack. We also find out more about Victorian attitudes due to the multi-narrative structure, as each character has their own views on events, and the reader can see how different classes treat the same events. MISS. Clack Is born of a higher class, and this Is shown by her arrogance and It can be seen that she Is also stuck In her class spite the poorer circumstances at the point when she is writing. She wants to be accepted by the upper classes and does not want to be downgraded. She moves to a little town and her excuse for this is for economys sake. People in Victorian times saw class as an important matter, and they would strive to be in the best circles they could possibly be in. This Is why Clack Justifies her move, as she does not want people to tank seen NAS move Tort toner reasons, sun as a lack AT money . Nils snows she is prepared to Justify and maybe change details to Justify events or actions. Clack is also very religious as she reinforces her statements with religious words. My sacred regard for truth is This suggests she is very religiously minded, as were most Victorians of that day and age, who thought there main aim should be getting to heaven. She is strictly religious, and her strictness is also portrayed in her narrative. She had a strict routine and liked to keep things ordered, and not vary them. In the same order, same place, even the same chair. This sho ws Clack has a very disciplined way of doing things, meaning her account is useful for giving us the right vents in the right order. Sergeant Cuffs narrative is set out in Just the way the reader would expect a detective to write. He gives his opinions and thoughts about the theft of the Diamond along with an explanation of why he believes what he believes what he believes. He backs up his explanation with evidence. He believed Goodbye was killed by being smothered with a pillow from his bed, as he was found with the pillow of the bed over his face. Although this seems trivial it is an underlying principle of his personality. He feels the need to explain every event that happened and not Just state what happened. This is what makes the reader believe Sergeant Cuff must be right as he explains his views, unlike some of the characters. Cuffs intellectualism is also shown in his narrative along with his Just views, which makes the reader inclined to trust his Judgment. Sergeant Cuffs narrative is important as it shows how Collins has made him very inquisitive. He says l shall endeavourer showing he is interested in finding out more. It is this inquisitiveness that sets off a widespread detective-fever amongst the other characters, victims and suspects alike. This fever spreads from Franklin Blake, to Gabriel Bettered, to Matthew Brief, to Mr.. Marguerite, to the three Indians and widens the net of suspicion, the opposite of what is trying to be achieved. Cuff makes many predictions as to what has happened, although not all of them have solid evidence. When writing about who committed the murder, he puts, There is here moral if not legal evidence that the murder was committed by the Indians. As it is not legal evidence, the reader is not totally sure if it was the Indians who committed the crime, and this brings a sense of suspense, as the crime may have been committed y someone other than the Indians. Here Collins is trying to show equality and there should not be a prejudice against the Indians. Just because they are different it doesnt make them inferior and have different morals, meaning they are prepared to steal. The sense of suspense is maintained throughout the novel due to the multi-narrative structure. Where one narrative ends and the sense of mystery seems to have settled down a new narrative begins and a new sense of mystery is brought about. Using character who hadnt played a role in the previous narrative, suspense is kept throughout the novel. A new perspective on the mystery is given in each narrative Ana Day ten time ten reader NAS Decode accustomed to one perspective, ten next perspective begins and constant suspense is achieved throughout the novel. Ezra Jennings narrative is set out differently from the rest as it is comprised of extracts from his Journal. This means that everything he writes in there he believes to be the truth. Because of the multi-narrative structure some of the narratives could have an altered version of the truth and might not give an accurate view of the occurring events, leading the reader astray. Jennings has an outsider role in the evolve as he is the doctors assistant and because he is associated with medicine he is not popular, as the Victorians were suspicious of the medical profession. Collins tries to show everybody should be accepted throughout the play and this is finalized with the outsider character being the one to solve the mystery. This is also shown as Roseanne, one of the maids, is an outsider but she plays a large role in the novel and Collins also tries to create sympathy for her. Jennings was the character who was mainly responsible for solving the mystery of the Diamond through scientific nature, which can be compared to forensic evidence. The Moonstone was the first novel to explore forensic science and it showed how at this point of the Victorian era, they were advancing in the new science of criminology. Collins purposely makes the detective expert (Sergeant Cuff fail in solving the mystery while the scientific man (Ezra Jennings) succeeds. This shows Collins could have been making the point that the Victorians were now starting to put more and more faith into science, although they still were suspicious about it. Bettered says Jennings has a medical enterprise. This proves that he is a scientific man and the other characters can see that. Jennings also accepts he is a scientific man, showing it is proud to be so in the eyes of the Victorians. He says Science sanctions my proposal, fanciful as it may seem. Jennings is the one who introduces the idea of the opium causing Franklin Blake to act to take the Diamond. He explains that Franklin was not in his right mind when he took it, and was in a state of sleep-walking. Because Flakes mind was on the Diamond when he went to sleep the opium made him concentrate on this when it took effect. However because people were suspicious at the time of medical practice Jennings did not voice his opinion straight away. Jennings is introduced as a mystery to us, and all we know is that he is Dry. Candys assistant. This creates suspense as he has been mentioned in the other narratives as well but the reader is still suspicious of him as they know little about him. Gradually Collins presents more of him, and the reader finds out Jennings is part English and part Indian. Jennings holds a mysterious place at the heart of both worlds, Just like he is at the heart of the novel. His experiment on Franklin Blake reveals the suspicion the English had against the three Indians should be returned upon them, as in the end it is one of their own, Goodbye Blithest, who played the major role in the crime. I believe using multiple voices had the desired effect that Collins wanted it to. It created suspense throughout the novel and a feeling that nothing was definitive and anything could change to alter the path of the novel. This technique especially works in a detective novel as details are crucial and if these details are mixed, which is done using multiple voices then a lot of suspense and uncertainness is caused.

Hustlers Days review essays

Hustlers Days review essays Hustlers Days is a book of biographies about the greatest pool hustlers and players that ever lived from the 1920's till today. It tells how the three most famous hustlers, Rudolph Wanderone Jr. aka Minnesota Fats, Jake Breit aka Jersey Red, and Luther Clement Lassiter Jr. aka Wimpy Lassiter, lived and what they went through. In R. A. Dyer's book, Hustler Days, he writes about these great pool bums careers from start to finish. Minnesota Fats (Rudolph Wanderone Jr.) was born on January 19, 1913 in Manhattan, New York and died January 15, 1996 in Nashville, Tennessee. Like many of all the great hustlers, Fats had no childhood, he spent his days in the pool halls learning everything he could about the game and hustled people out of their dollars. Fats dropped out of PS 132 and by the age of eight he was throwing dice and gambling, at age thirteen he beat a 9-ball champion by the name of Cowboy Weston, and at age 16 he was hustling the shirts off of peoples backs without them even knowing it. He later bought a car and went on the road to start his career. Fats never liked to work hard or to waste his time learning, he liked to play pool and like every other hustler, he made an honest living doing absolutly nothing. Wimpy Lassiter (Luther Clement Lassiter Jr.) was born on November 5, 1918 in Elizabeth City, North Carolina and died 1988. Wimpy lassiter had a normal childhood, playing baseball with his firends and playing pool on cheap home made tables. Lassiter didn't get a real good education, he spent his time in the bars where the real money was. Wimpy also dropped out of school, it was in his way. Since he was underage, he would work around the bars and the owners would let him play on the empty tables. With World War II coming Lassiter joined the local Navy so he wouldn't get drafted out to Europe. He would start his career by hustling the sailers, and later becoming a 9-ball champion with more than 17 titles un...

Transferred Epithet Definition and Examples

Transferred Epithet Definition and Examples A transferred epithet is a little known- but often used- figure of speech where a modifier (usually an adjective) qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is actually describing. In other words, the modifier or epithet is  transferred  from the noun it is meant to describe to another noun in the sentence.   Transferred Epithet Examples An example  of a transferred epithet is: I had a wonderful day. The day is not in itself wonderful. The  speaker  had a wonderful day. The epithet wonderful actually describes the kind of day the speaker experienced. Some other examples of transferred epithets are cruel bars, sleepless night, and suicidal sky.   The bars, presumably installed in a prison, are not cruel; they are inanimate objects. The person who installed the bars is cruel; the bars serve to foster this persons cruel intentions. Likewise, a night cant be sleepless. It is a person who is experiencing a night where she cannot sleep. And, a sky cant be suicidal, but a dark sky might make a depressed person feel suicidal. Transferred Epithets vs. Personification Dont confuse transferred epithets with personification,  a figure of speech  in which an inanimate object or abstraction is given human qualities or abilities.  One of literatures best examples of personification is 19th-century poet  Carl Sanbergs description of fog: The fog comes / on little cat feet.†Ã‚   Fog doesnt have feet. Its an inanimate object. Fog also cant come or walk. So, this quote gives fog qualities it cannot have- little feet and the ability to walk. The use of personification helps to paint a mental picture in the readers mind of the fog slowly creeping in. By contrast, you could say:   Sara has an  unhappy marriage. A marriage, itself, cannot be unhappy. Marriage is inanimate; its just an idea. But Sara (and presumably her husband)  could  have an unhappy marriage. This quote, then, is a transferred epithet: It transfers the modifier, unhappy, to the word marriage. Meditative Foot Because transferred epithets provide a vehicle for  metaphoric language, writers have often employed them to infuse their works with vivid imagery. These examples show writers and poets effectively using transferred epithets in their works: â€Å"As I sat in the bathtub, soaping a meditative foot and singing...it would be deceiving my public to say that I was feeling boomps-a-daisy. - P.G. Wodehouse, Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit, 1954 Wodehouse, whose work also includes many other effective uses of  grammar  and  sentence structure, transfers his meditative feeling to the foot he is soaping. Wodehouse even makes clear that he is really describing his own feelings of melancholy by noting that he could not say he was feeling boomps-a-daisy (wonderful or happy). Indeed,  he  was feeling meditative, not his foot. In this sentence, the silence  cannot be discreet; its an inanimate idea. Its clear that the author and his companions were being discreet by staying silent. Were coming close to those little creeks now, and we keep a discreet silence. - Henry Hollenbaugh, Rio San Pedro. Expressing Feelings British essayist, poet,  and  playwright T.S. Eliot  uses a transferred epithet to make his feelings clear in a letter to a fellow British poet and novelist: You dont really criticize any author to whom you have never surrendered yourself....Even just the  bewildering minute  counts. - T. S. Eliot, letter to Stephen Spender, 1935 Eliot is expressing his frustration, probably to criticism of him or some of his works. It is not the minute that is bewildering; it is Eliot who feels that the criticism is bewildering and likely unwarranted. By calling the minute bewildering, Eliot was trying to elicit empathy from Spender, who would have understood his feelings and frustration. So, the next time you want to express your feelings in an essay, letter, or story, try using a transferred epithet: You can cast your feelings onto an inanimate object yet still make your emotions perfectly clear to your reader.

Development and Analysis of Two Mini Case Studies Study

Development and Analysis of Two Mini Studies - Case Study Example with aim of being most innovative company with technologically advanced products that entered the market of mobile industry so that it can differentiate itself from PC industry (Fuller, 2010). It was successful in making its name in mobile device company in 2010. By the end of 2009, Apple grew to become fourth largest vendor of PC in the market of United States with market share of about 8%. According to Mishra (2011), Apple had market capitalization of about $220 billion in spring of 2010. Apple has mostly implemented multi-million dollar marketing campaigns like the most successful ads by slogan â€Å"Think Different† and it promoted itself as a well-known alternative for computer and mobile device industries. The company highlighted itself as the world’s â€Å"greenest lineup of notebooks†. According to Kim and Mauborgne (2009), the primary goal of Apple is to differentiate its products and intense competition in the PC and mobile device industry. However, App le faced some challenges when management and employees were having different opinions about running the company and they even missed some opportunities which impacted its competitive advantage and gave clear path to companies such as Dell, Gateway and Microsoft. Other failures that were faced by the company in its initial operational years comprised of design crime which meant it focuses on synonymous designs i.e. sleek and sexy and when it deviates from it some problems are encountered such as in 1998 the hockey puck which was colorful and translucent and 1997 20th anniversary Mac which was a bronze-colored monstrosity failed in the market; iWay or Highway approach by Jobs till 1997 made Apple lose its market share to Android as people wanted to freely use their iPhones and iPads and its attempt to target professional market by launching the Pippin, the Macintosh Portable, the invasion of the Mac clones and the Newton MessagePad; all were failure products (Pitta & Pitta, 2012; Tyna n, 2011). Apple Inc. now operates in various lines of computer and music industries; it designs as well as manufactures all of its computers and software. It was ventured into the music world by marketing its products such as iPod, iTunes and digital music player (Al-Rubaie, 2010). The main target market of Apple comprises of home users, small and medium sized businesses along with education segment that comprises of younger generation and creative individuals. Apple retail store has successfully captured its target market’s attention and helped it in offering direct access to its products and software. According to McGee, Thomas, and Wilson (2005), strategy used by Apple is differentiation strategy as it believes in providing innovative products to its target market that are developed with cutting edge technology. Recently, Apple won its case against Samsung in which it charged Samsung for copying the design of iPhones. According to Gahran (2012), the jury of much-hyped Appl e versus Samsung patent infringement lawsuit handed down the verdict in which Apple was given everything that it wanted which was a billion dollar payment from Samsung and possibility of injunction against sales of infringement of Samsung smartphones and tablets. The main critical success factors of Apple are that it has well integrated computer systems; AirPort Express is a package offered by the company that comprises of print spooler, audio, bridging and Ethernet; subcontracting of its

The Opposite of Freedom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Opposite of Freedom - Essay Example There would be no one to live for during those coming years; she would live for herself. There would be no powerful will bending hers in blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature. A kind intention or a cruel intention made the act seem no less a crime as she looked upon it in a brief moment of illumination. (Story 2) For her, freedom was only possible in the death of her husband, not in his life. She was not sad at his dying, because it meant that she would finally be able to make her own decisions, finally able to live her own life. Yet the story can not end there. The reader is told early in the story that Louise has a weak heart, and would be stressed by the news. When the doctors arrive to check her, and make sure she is well, another person also arrives-her husband. The story ends "When the doctors came they said she had died of heart disease - of joy that kills" (Story 3). To the very end, she was controlled by her husband, and the shock at realizing that all the joy she had felt was too soon killed her. Even her death was determined by the actions of a man. For Desiree, of "Desiree's Baby," the misery in her life is no less evident. She is happy with her husband, and they have a great love. ... She, who is a very sensitive soul, is glad that the coming of their first child has softened her husband, who is often cruel with the slaves. Then, suddenly, something changed, and the entire mood of the house was different. Desire noticed When he spoke to her, it was with averted eyes, from which the old love-light seemed to have gone out. He absented himself from home; and when there, avoided her presence and that of her child, without excuse. And the very spirit of Satan seemed suddenly to take hold of him in his dealings with the slaves. Desiree was miserable enough to die. (Desiree 3) Something, it seemed, had changed for him, and his mood is what controlled the entire house. When Desiree suddenly realizes that her son is partially black, she goes to her husband to find out why he was black. He explains to her that she must be black. And because she was black, he no longer wanted her. She left, and he burned all her belongings, along with those of the baby. Yet, at the end, the narrator shares with the reader a note from Armand's past. His mother wrote "I thank the good God for having so arranged our lives that our dear Armand will never know that his mother, who adores him, belongs to the race that is cursed with the brand of slavery" (Desiree 6). He was so embarrassed by his own history that he was willing to blame it on his wife, and force her to leave, along with his son. For both women, men controlled their actions. For Desiree, the fault was clearly hers, and she was forced to leave. For Louise, her only freedom came with her husband's death. Both women were limited in their movements by men, but in different ways. Desiree was forced to leave, and lose the happiness she had with her family, along with

ISO Standards and Excellence - reflection ( CLO 3 ) Essay

ISO Standards and Excellence - reflection ( CLO 3 ) - Essay Example This certification is so objective (making it more credible and reliable) that ISO itself does not do the certification but a third party certification body that cannot be certified by ISO. This removes conflict of interest and undue influence. This certification process involves an audit in evaluating the company’s standards vis-Ã  -vis audit criterial established. This is a continuous process to ensure that quality and improvement is maintained. The benefits of having ISO certified are many. Having quality as a standard obviously meets if not exceed customer’s requirements and this means increased customer satisfaction leading to more business and more profit for the company and able to articulate its processes. Getting an ISO certification is not easy when I did a review on the audit process. But considering the benefits of the certification to the company and its long-term viability as a business organization, ISO is no longer just a quality certificate that a company may opt but an imperative in today’s very competitive environment because it wears the badge of credibility and

Changing the system Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Changing the system - Term Paper Example I work in an in-patient and out-patient hospital. The hospital has many different departments, the nursing department being one of them. I will use the systems theory to my work system as a nurse within the hospital. The supra-system is the society. One of the roles of society is to maintain the wellbeing of everyone in it. Super-system is comprised of the healthcare sector. Each society normally has a healthcare system whose role is to provide healthcare to all. Individual hospitals are the systems. In each hospital, there are different mechanisms put in place to ensure that members of society access health care services. Subsystems are hospital departments, individual nurses working in each of these departments, materials used in each of the departments. In each hospital, there are nurses, doctors, medical equipment and drugs that are used to ensure that members of society are healthy (Patton and McMahon, 2006). The hospital provides a platform through which individual members of society can access the healthcare services that they need. Nurses play a major role in ensuring that the system is efficient. Therefore, there is a well-established nursing department which has been given different roles to ensure that patients get the best possible healthcare services from the hospital. The input is the factor that is necessary to enable nurses to do their work well (Joslyn and Heylighen, 1992). The input in this case consists of the set of guidelines that the nurses must follow in order to work professionally. In the hospital, there are certain guidelines that regulate how nurses report for their shifts and how they carry out their specific duties. The main components of output in this case are the nurses themselves, the practice of nursing, the patient (client) and the hospital itself (Patton and McMahon, 2006). The nurses provide direct healthcare services to

La Primavera (or Spring) and The Tree of Death and Life Essay

La Primavera (or Spring) and The Tree of Death and Life - Essay Example Botticelli's masterwork implies poetic allegory embracing the theme of love and a certain philosophical meaning as it depicts the Garden of Hesperides, which I will dwell on in more detail below. The plot of the painting is being developed from right to left. There is an ominous figure with wings and swollen cheeks dressed in a greenish flowing cloak in the upper right corner of the painting. His name is Zephyrus and he is a symbol of the wind. One can see how the trunks of trees bent influenced by the flight of this mysterious figure. A scared nymph named Chloris, to the left from Zephyrus, tries to run away touching another woman on the left as if asking her for protection. But the woman neglects the nymph, who tries hard to flee from the wind on the right from her, and is walking to the bottom of the painting. It must be noted that this woman in a long dress embroidered with flowers, with a thin face that registers no emotion and a wreath on the golden hair is depicted in the afor ementioned Ovid's poem Fasti that Botticelli was inspired with when creating his masterpiece. In Ovid's poem she is referred to as Spring but, as a matter of fact, this woman might as well be the goddess of flowers and plants, Flora. In the Botticelli's painting she had a dress embroidered with red and blue cornflowers, symbols of amiability and good nature, and scattered roses, which was the usual thing for rich Florentine weddings. The wreath around her neck is made of strawberries that symbolize tenderness, chamomile.

Changing the system Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Changing the system - Term Paper Example I work in an in-patient and out-patient hospital. The hospital has many different departments, the nursing department being one of them. I will use the systems theory to my work system as a nurse within the hospital. The supra-system is the society. One of the roles of society is to maintain the wellbeing of everyone in it. Super-system is comprised of the healthcare sector. Each society normally has a healthcare system whose role is to provide healthcare to all. Individual hospitals are the systems. In each hospital, there are different mechanisms put in place to ensure that members of society access health care services. Subsystems are hospital departments, individual nurses working in each of these departments, materials used in each of the departments. In each hospital, there are nurses, doctors, medical equipment and drugs that are used to ensure that members of society are healthy (Patton and McMahon, 2006). The hospital provides a platform through which individual members of society can access the healthcare services that they need. Nurses play a major role in ensuring that the system is efficient. Therefore, there is a well-established nursing department which has been given different roles to ensure that patients get the best possible healthcare services from the hospital. The input is the factor that is necessary to enable nurses to do their work well (Joslyn and Heylighen, 1992). The input in this case consists of the set of guidelines that the nurses must follow in order to work professionally. In the hospital, there are certain guidelines that regulate how nurses report for their shifts and how they carry out their specific duties. The main components of output in this case are the nurses themselves, the practice of nursing, the patient (client) and the hospital itself (Patton and McMahon, 2006). The nurses provide direct healthcare services to

GSA Wants You Federal Contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

GSA Wants You Federal Contracts - Essay Example The system uses the most recent digital authentication technology to allow for electronic signatures and cater for data integrity. Advantages of Electronic over Classic paper Solicitations 1. Data security The electronic process ensures that the proposals are submit exactly as the contractors write them without unnecessary modification of information. It also ensures that the proposals are delivered directly to the responsible personnel without being passed through other parties. This eliminates the possibility of alteration of the content or loss of the proposals in the process of transportation (Brian, 2003). Unlike the paper process, which is subject to many-party handling hence providing opportunities for malicious altering of data, data security is assured. Paper process entails impairing with the interactive environment since the intended information from the original source may not go the intended personnel. 2. Ease of Applying There is software that enables one to complete th ese proposals easily with tools providing hint on what is required from the proposal. This helps one to provide the necessary information without much struggle. The software also helps one to look for errors easily and correct them in order to forward an understandable proposal. This is because the proposal must entail clear information and hence the process becomes easier since there is no room for assumptions. To some ambiguous phrases, it is essential that drafting of all the work is done and typed manually to create ease for one to detect any errors especially when the proposal is not using a good software. In addition, there is high possibility of leaving important information since the whole process is imagined (Safari Books, 2009). This would lead to impaired communication since the solicitation while have to be returned for completion of the required information and clarification of some ambiguous phrases. 3. Fast Delivery The submitting of the proposals is done online hence it takes very little time for the proposals to reach the targeted destinations after they have been submitted. This ensures fast interaction between the contractor and the prospective contractors hence leading to faster decision making process unlike the classic paper solicitations which have to be submitted manually hence taking a lot of time to communicate. 4. Ease of reviewing After the proposals have been sent to the GSA, it may be returned for correction or clarification on matters concerning responsibility, responsiveness, scope, subcontracting plan or pricing analysis. After the proposal is reviewed and in some cases returned, the electronic system offers an easy way for editing and adding the relevant information. Editing the original proposal is easier than the paper process whereby the whole document has to be retyped in order to allow addition of information and also printed again for resubmission. 5. Economical Compared to the paper process, the electronic submission is more economical in terms of space and funds. This is because it cuts down the printing costs and unnecessary occupation of space for filing documents since the proposals are stored in their computer databases. 6. Duration of Contract There should be negotiations about the period of the contract to make sure that the period allows my company to stabilize. The process must allow the company in its operations and recover from any losses it may have incurred during the

Scientific Management Essay Example for Free

Scientific Management Essay Scientific Management was a new form of management that evolved in the late 1800’s that was based on a number of principles that analyzed the activities of individuals, which in turn, optimized efficiency and productivity. In this essay I will discuss the major advances that were pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor, Henry Gantt and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Frederick Winslow Taylor was thought of as the most influential business guru of the twentieth century. 154) Taylor was a well -educated man that started his work as a laborer and quickly moved up to a chief engineer at Midvale Steel Company. Through his various positions and experience within this company he discovered many problems that were apparent between management and laborer. His first attempt in his creation of Scientific Management was to combat a process called â€Å"soldiering†. Taylor observed how the process of soldering led to low production because workers had intentionally worked slow, while making management believe they were working faster. Taylor identified two types of soldiering that workers practiced: natural and systematic. Natural soldiering was referred to as the â€Å"the natural instinct and tendency of men to take it easy. † Managers tried to overcome natural soldiering by forcing workers to be more productive. (123) Systematic soldiering was when workers all together would reason with one another to work slower. Taylor believed that workers systematically soldiered because of three main reasons. First, if workers completed their jobs faster, they believed they would be laid off. Secondly, when workers were paid by piece rate, if their production increased, they believed management would cut the piece rate requiring them to do more work for the same amount of pay they were receiving at the time. Finally, workers were accustomed to old work habits that were handed down from generation to generation. (124) Taylor believed that systematic soldiering posed more concerns than natural soldering. He thought that the problems arose because of management’s lack of responsibility to create proper jobs that offered good incentives. Taylor knew that a new industrial system would need to be created to correct the problems that were evident with management and laborer. Time Studies Taylor set out to develop a new system in an attempt to overcome the process of soldiering. Taylor believed he could determine how each job could be accomplished most efficiently and then establish performance standards based on his findings. (125) The first step in his system was defined as time studies, which was the beginning of Scientific Management. Taylor believed that he could overcome soldiering by determining what workers ought to be able to achieve with equipment and materials by scientifically setting performance standards. According to the authors of The Evolution of Management Thought â€Å"Taylor used a stop watch, weight scale and tape to literally measure the distances that workers and materials traveled. † (125) From his findings, Taylor discovered that workers used too much effort and materials to accomplish their tasks and believed this was mainly due to improper management. Taylor classified his time studies into two phases: analysis and synthesis. Analysis meant that each job was broken down into movements then the movement was described and recorded along with enough time allowed for unavoidable delays. Synthesis was all the movements in the correct sequence to determine the time and exact method for performing a job. (126)Taylor’s time studies created improvements in all elements that surround a job, careful examination of individuals at work led to a more efficient approach to perform tasks which ultimately reduced effort and increased production. Improved Incentives Taylor noticed that the traditional incentives for workers were discouraged in more ways than one. Taylor believed that management needed to create new incentive rates. Profit sharing and the old ways of paying positions instead of men, seemed to be inefficient methods. Taylor devised a three part plan that improved incentives which consisted of using time studies to set standards and pay rates, a differential piecework system that paid employees a higher rate per piece if they finished their work faster than specified, and lastly, paying the men instead of paying the positions. He believed that performance standards should be set before piece rates and rest period should be given more often to decrease fatique. Additionally, Taylor saw a need for a mutuality of interests between manager and worker and devised a system that would benefit both sides. The belief held by people was that higher wages led to higher costs. In turn, Taylor proved that higher wages would lead to lower costs and increased production with less effort. Employers didn’t have to pay low wages in order to gain momentum in the industry. Taylor also believed that some people are better suited for a position based on their will and ambition; he referred to these people as â€Å"first class workers. † Taylor urged that performance standards should be based on a first class workers pace and believed that management was responsible for identifying these types of workers. Throughout the years people assumed that production was increased by people working longer and harder, but the truth was, production increased if people worked smarter not harder. People used their resources more wisely and learned the most efficient way to complete a job. Task Management System Taylor’s task management system utilized the time studies to dictate how long a task should take to be completed and used careful planning with detailed written instructions to assign tasks to workers. Taylor thought to motivate workers based on how long it took them to complete their job. The workers that finished their job in the allotted time received higher wages compared to those who did not. Management was aided in their tasks by a new term Taylor referred to as â€Å"functional foremanship†. Taylor felt that managers should have certain qualities in order for them to be efficient supervisors which include special and technical knowledge, tact, brains, energy, common sense and good health. Taylor used this selection process to determine what tasks managers should perform. This new system of planned performance allowed each person to be in charge of a different responsibility. Managers skills were specialized which resulted in a decrease in time it took to recruit and hire people who may not be a good fit. This system dramatically changed the way tasks were planned, before this time workplace layout determined how tasks were performed. Taylor went on to put his ideas into writing with a book called The Principles of Scientific Management. This book was a significant advance of the times and made Taylor a national hero in just twenty four hours. His findings that were released in this book, sparked much controversy, but ultimately gained popularity. His book was translated into many different languages just two years after the publication. (141) Taylor was credited for leading the world towards efficiency in more ways than one. Henry Gantt There were many people who followed Taylor’s scientific approach to management thought. One of these followers that had contributed greatly to management thought was Henry Gantt. Gantt was a man that recognized the demands of the world and knew he could have a better chance at making it in life by becoming educated. He obtained a mechanical engineer degree and began his work at the Midvale Steel Company alongside of Frederick Taylor. After working with Taylor, Gantt turned out to be strongly influenced by his ideas about how to manage industry. Gantt became one of Taylor’s leading disciples and moved on to create his own ways to improve management methods and make an industry more efficient. Like Taylor, Gantt knew that there was a need for a mutuality of interest between management and worker. Gantt believed that this theory started with the worker, he argued that the workingman was the most important element in management. (159) He urged that a successful atmosphere in industry was eminent when the employer has the best worker for the position and the worker believes his work is sold at the highest price. Task and Bonus System As Gantt began to examine the managers and workers more closely, he devised a task and bonus system, which was similar to Taylor’s differential piece rate system. Gantt experimented with his ideas before he found the system that was the best solution. He would offer bonuses to workers that completed a task in less than standard time, he offered bonuses to first line supervisors based on each workers performance to complete their task in the allotted time and offered an additional bonus to supervisors if all the workers completed their task in the time limit. He found that this system encouraged supervisors to become better leaders by teaching and helping workers to achieve maximum performance. This was an important concept that shifted management from forcing workers to meet standards to leading them in a cooperative manner. After a while, workers and management started to resist the work methods Gantt created. The workers went on strike and Gantt eventually had to find and train replacements. This occurrence led Gantt to believe that management owned the role of training workers more thoroughly. In addition, Gantt added more training that used industriousness and cooperation, which he referred to as the â€Å"habits of industry†. According to the authors of The Evolution of Management Thought, â€Å"Gantt felt that as a result of doing their work promptly and to the best of their ability, workers would experience pride that comes from quality as well as quantity to work. † (161) Gantt believed that the management and laborer would be benefitted equally; employee would be paid higher wages leading to lower costs and the employer would have a greater output of production. Gantt Progress Chart As Gantt attempted to conquer the problems associated with management and laborer with the task and bonus system, he set out to devise a system to aid management in planning and coordinating workloads. After several attempts, Gantt pioneered a bar chart which was known to be the most valuable contribution to management of the generation. (163) The Gantt Progress Chart showed how work should be scheduled or directed through numerous operations, to completion. This chart allowed managers to distinguish whether a job was ahead or behind schedule, then management could take whatever means were necessary to correct the issue. The Gantt chart became a widely used efficient tool to support management in decision making and helped ensure that resources were being used proficiently. The Gilbreth’s Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were also followers of Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management principles. Frank had greatly contributed to management thought with his invention of the motion studies. Frank began his studies while working as a bricklayer. He started examining the bricklaying process and began to eliminate the steps or motions from 18 to 6. He saw that people could do twice as much work with less effort if the job was done the right way. Frank looked to remove the motions that were unnecessary in jobs, in order to reduce fatigue and increase productivity. After his invention of the motion studies, he moved to focus his work on the construction business. He used the same methods to build homes, dams, factories, skyscrapers and even whole towns. (168) As Frank gained increasing popularity, his wife persuaded him to put his work into writing. His work consisted of three systems: the field, concrete and bricklaying system. The field system was mainly used in construction as an accounting system. This system showed costs, costs in relation to estimates and the total costs of each specific job. In addition, Frank used a suggestion program that enabled workers to obtain extra money for their suggestions on how to improve a job. This would ultimately lead to better service for the customers and additional jobs in the future. (169) Under the concrete system, Frank used competition to motivate the workers. He held contests to see how fast workers could complete a job. Lastly, was the bricklaying system, he used this system to effectively train the workers. He believed apprentices should learn the best way to do a job before standards are set. He believed the earlier methods of instruction from the experienced workers were inefficient and created too much waste. These systems showed how Frank rationalized work methods, improved productivity and ensured efficiency by motivating and correctly training workers by transferring their skills. As Frank started to expand his interests, he looked for better ways to identify inefficient motions. Frank came up with the brilliant idea to use a camera to examine the motions of workers. He then would eliminate the waste based on the analysis. Frank and Lillian also filmed workers attached with small electrical lights; when their movement was slowest they would see a bunch of dots, while they would see sporadic dots when their movement was at a faster pace. The use of camera to observe the movements of workers seemed to be more useful and accurate than Taylor’s use of the stopwatch. As time went by, Frank and Lillian started to detach from Taylor’s methods. Lillian went on to focus her thoughts on â€Å"The Psychology of Management. She studied the effects that work has on humans and held that successful management was determined by the man, not the work. While Lillian tried to determine the most effective and efficient approach to management, she had to compare the three styles that were created: traditional, transitory and scientific. Traditional management created anxiety by relying on rewards and punishment to motivate workers and essentially there was no mutuality of interest between management and worker. Transitory management was the short term style that was incomplete and ill directed before scientific management emerged. Essentially, According to the authors of The Evolution of Management Thought, Lillian believed that scientific management was the best style because it â€Å"promoted regular work, encouraged good personal habits, and fostered the physical, mental, moral, and financial development of workers. (174) Lillian recognized the human factor in work which led her to pioneer human resource management. This creation of human resource management was a significant advance of the times that led industries to obtain the best workers for the positions at hand by the scientific selection, training and placement of the workers. Frederick Taylor, Henry Gantt and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth contributed greatly to the scientific management movement. Close examination of management and workers led to new concepts that improved work methods and incentives, motivated workers, eliminated motions, reduced fatigue and increased production. All of these factors allowed for industries to become more efficient than ever before. Managers gained the proper tools and knowledge that enabled them to train, select and place workers where they were best suited. These concepts that were put into practice in the late 1800’s are still widely used today in the workplace.

Effect of Early Numeracy Learning on Numerical Reasoning

Effect of Early Numeracy Learning on Numerical Reasoning FROM NUMERICAL MAGNITUDE TO FRACTIONS Early understanding of numerical magnitude and proportion is directly related to subsequent acquisition of fraction knowledge Abstract Evidence from experiments with infants concerning their ability to reason with numerical magnitude is examined, along with the debate relating to the innateness of numerical reasoning ability. The key debate here concerns performance in looking time experiments, the appropriateness of which is examined. Subsequently, evidence concerning how children progress to reasoning with proportions is examined. The key focus of the debate here relates to discrete vs continuous proportions and the difficulties children come to have when reasoning with discrete proportions specifically. Finally, the evidence is reviewed into how children come to reason with fractions and, explicitly, the difficulties experienced and why this is the case. This is examined in the context of different theories of mathematical development, together with the effect of teaching methods. Early understanding of numerical magnitude and proportion is directly related to subsequent acquisition of fraction knowledge Understanding of magnitude and fractions is crucial in contemporary society. Relatively simple tasks such as dividing a restaurant bill or sharing cake at a birthday party rely on an understanding of these concepts in order to determine how much everyone requires to pay towards the bill or how much cake everyone can receive. Understanding of these concepts is also required to allow calculation of more complex mathematical problems, such as solving equations in statistical formulae. It is therefore evident that a sound understanding of magnitude and fractions is required in everyday life and whilst most adults take for granted the ability to calculate magnitudes and fractions, this is not so for children, who require education to allow the concepts to be embedded into their understanding. De Smedt, Verschaffel, and Ghesquià ¨re (2009) suggest that children’s performance on magnitude comparison tasks predicts later mathematical achievement, with Booth and Siegler (2008) further arguing for a causal link between early understanding of magnitude and mathematical achievement. Despite these findings, research tends to highlight problems when the teaching of whole number mathematics progresses to teaching fractions. Bailey, Hoard, Nugent, and Geary (2012) suggest that performance on fraction tasks is indicative of overall mathematics performance levels, although overall mathematical ability does not predict ability on these tasks. This article reviews the current position of research into how young children, between birth and approximately seven years of age come to understand magnitude and how this relates to the subsequent learning of fractions. By primarily reviewing research into interpretation of numerical magnitude, the first section of this paper will have a fairly narrow focus. This restriction is necessary due to the large volume of literature on the topic of infant interpretation of magnitude generally and is also felt to be appropriate due to the close link between integers, proportions and fractions. An understanding of magnitude is essential to differentiate proportions (Jacob, Vallentin, Nieder, 2012) and following the review of literature in respect of how magnitude comes to be understood, the paper will review the present situation in respect of how young children understand proportions. Finally, the article will conclude with a review of where the literature is currently placed in respect of how young children’s understanding of magnitude and proportion relates to the learning of fractions and briefly how this fits within an overall mathematical framework. Is the understanding of numerical magnitude innate? There are two opposing views in respect of the innateness of human understanding of number and magnitude. One such view suggests that infants are born with an innate ability to carry out basic numerical operations such as addition and subtraction (Wynn, 1992, 1995, 2002). In her seminal and widely cited study, Wynn (1992) used a looking time procedure to measure the reactions of young infants to both possible and impossible arithmetical outcomes over three experiments. Infants were placed in front of a screen with either one or two objects displayed. A barrier was then placed over the screen, restricting the infants’ view, following which an experimenter either â€Å"added† or â€Å"removed† an item. The infants were able to see the mathematical operation taking place due to a small gap at the edge of the screen which showed items being added or subtracted, but were not able to view the final display until the barrier was removed. Following the manipulation and r emoval of the barrier, infants’ looking times were measured and it was established that overall infants spent significantly more time looking at the impossible outcome than the correct outcome. These results were assumed to be indicative of an innate ability in human infants to manipulate arithmetical operations and, accordingly, distinguish between different magnitudes. The suggestion of an innate human ability to manipulate arithmetical operations is given further credence by a number of different forms of replication of Wynn’s (1992) original study (Koechlin, Dehaene, Mehler, 1997; Simon, Hespos, Rochat, 1995). Feigneson, Carey, and Spelke (2002) and Uller, Carey, Huntley-Fenner, and Klatt (1999) also replicated Wynn, although interpreted the results as being based on infant preference for object-based attention as opposed to an integer-based attention. Despite replications of Wynn (1992), a number of studies have also failed to replicate the results, leading to an alternative hypothesis. Following a failure to replicate Wynn, Cohen and Marks (2002) posit that infants distinguish magnitude by favouring more objects over less and also display a preference towards the number of objects which they have initially been presented, regardless of the mathematical operation carried out by the experimenter. This suggestion arises from the results of an experiment where Wynn’s hypothesis of innate mathematical ability was tested against the preference hypothesis noted above. Further evidence against Wynn (1992) exists following an experiment by Wakeley, Rivera, and Langer (2000), who argue that no systematic evidence of addition and subtraction exists, instead the ability to add and subtract progressively develops during infancy and childhood. Whilst this does not specifically support Cohen and Marks, it does cast doubt on basic arithme tical skills and, accordingly, the ability to work with magnitude existing innately. How do children understand magnitude as they age? By six-months old, it is suggested that infants employ an approximate magnitude estimation system (McCrink Wynn, 2007). Using a looking-time experiment to assess infant attention to displays of pac-men and dots on screen, infants appeared to attend to novel displays with a large difference in ratio (2:1 to 4:1 pac-men to dots, 4:1 to 2:1 pac-men to dots), with no significant difference in attention times to novel stimuli with a closer ratio (2:1 to 3:1 pac-men to dots, 3:1 to 2:1pac-men to dots). These results were interpreted to exemplify an understanding of magnitudes with a degree of error, a pattern already existing in the literature on adult magnitude studies (McCrink Wynn, 2007). Unfortunately, one issue in respect of interpreting the results of experiments with infants is that they cannot explicitly inform experimenters of their understanding of what has happened. It has been argued that experiments making use of the looking-time paradigm cannot be properly understood as exp erimenters must make an assumption that infants will have the same expectations as adults, a matter which cannot be appropriately verified (Charles Rivera, 2009; K. Mix, 2002). As children come to utilise language, words which have a direct relationship to magnitude (eg., â€Å"little,† â€Å"more,† â€Å"lots†) enter into their vocabulary. The use of these words allows researchers to investigate how they come to form internal representations of magnitude and how they are used to explicitly reveal understanding of such magnitudes. Specifically isolating the word â€Å"more†, children appear to develop an understanding of the word as being comparatively domain neutral (Odic, Pietroski, Hunter, Lidz, Halberda, 2013). In an experiment requesting children aged 2.0 – 4.0 (mean age = 3.2) to distinguish which colour on pictures of a set of dots (numeric task) or blobs of â€Å"goo† (non-numeric task) represented â€Å"more†, it was established that no significant difference exists between performance on both numeric and non-numeric tasks. In addition, it was found that children age approximately 3.3 years and above performed significantly above chance, whereas those children below 3.3 years who participated did not. This supports the assertion that the word â€Å"more† is understood by young children as both comparative and in domain neutral terms not specifically related to number or area. It could also be suggested that it is around the age of 3.3 years when the word â€Å"more † comes to hold some sort of semantic understanding in relation to mathematically based stimuli (Odic et al., 2013). It is difficult to compare this study to that of McCrink and Wynn (2007) due to the differing nature of methodology. It would certainly be of interest to researchers to investigate the possibility of some sort of comparison research, however, as it is unclear how the Odic et al. (2013) study fits with the suggestion of an approximate magnitude estimation system, notwithstanding the use of language. Generally, children understand numerical magnitude on a logarithmic basis at an early age, progressing to a more linear understanding of magnitude as they age (Opfer Siegler, 2012), a change which is beneficial. It is suggested that the more linear a child’s mental representation of magnitude appears, the better their memory for magnitudes will be (Thompson Siegler, 2010). There are a number of reasons for this change in understanding, such as socioeconomic status, culture and education (Laski Siegler, in press). In the remainder of this section, the understanding of magnitude in school age children (up to approximately seven years old) is reviewed, although only the effect of education will be referred to. The remainder of the reasons are noted in order to exemplify some issues which can also have an impact on children’s development of numerical magnitude understanding. As children age, the neurological and mental representations of magnitude encompass both numeric and non-numeric stimuli in a linear fashion (Opfer Siegler, 2012). On this basis, number line representations present a reasonable method for investigation of children’s’ understanding of magnitude generally. One method for examining number line representations of magnitude in children uses board games in which children are required to count moves as they play. Both prior to and subsequent to playing the games, the children involved in the experiment are then presented with a straight line, the parameters of which are explained, and requested to mark on the line where a set number should be placed. This allows researchers to establish if the action of game playing has allowed numerical and/or magnitude information to be encoded. In an experiment of this nature with pre-school children (mean age 4 years 8 months), Siegler and Ramani (2009) established that the use of a linea r numerical board game (10 spaces) enhanced children’s understanding of magnitude when compared to the use of a circular board game. It is argued that the use of a linear board game assists with the formation of a retrieval structure, allowing participants to encode, store and retrieve magnitude information for future use. Similar results have subsequently been obtained by Laski and Siegler (in press), working with slightly older participants (mean age 5 years 8 months), who sought to establish the effect of a larger board (100 spaces). In this case, the structure of the board ruled out high performance based on participant memory of space location on the board. In addition, verbalising movements by counting on was found to have a significant impact on retention of magnitude information. A final key question relating to understanding of magnitude relates to the predictive value of current understanding on future learning. When education level was controlled for, Booth and Siegler (2008) found a significant correlation between the pre-test numerical magnitude score on a number line task and post-test scores of 7 year-olds on both number line tasks and arithmetic problems, This discovery has been supported by a replication by De Smedt et al, (2009) and these findings together suggest that an understanding of magnitude is fundamental in predicting future mathematical ability. It is also clear that a good understanding of magnitude will assist children in subsequent years when the curriculum proceeds to deal more comprehensively with matters such as proportionality and fractions. From numerical magnitudes to proportions Evidence reviewed previously in this article tends to suggest that children have the ability to distinguish numerical magnitudes competently by the approximate age of 7 years old. Unfortunately, the ability to distinguish between magnitudes does not necessarily suggest that they are easily reasoned with by children. Inhelder and Piaget (1958) first suggested that children were unable to reason with proportions generally until the transition to the formal operational stage of development, at around 11-12 years of age. This point is elucidated more generally with the argument that most proportional reasoning tasks prove difficult for children, regardless of age (Spinillo Bryant, 1991). However, more recent research has suggested that this assertion does not strictly hold true, with children as young as 4 and 5 years old able to reason proportionally (Sophian, 2000). Recent evidence suggests that the key debate in terms of children’s ability to reason with proportions concerns t he distinction between discrete quantities and continuous quantities. Specifically, it is argued that children find dealing with problems involving continuous proportions simpler than those involving discrete proportions (Boyer, Levine, Huttenlocher, 2008; Jeong, Levine, Huttenlocher, 2007; Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001; Spinillo Bryant, 1999). In addition, the â€Å"half† boundary is also viewed as being of critical importance in children’s proportional reasoning and understanding (Spinillo Bryant, 1991, 1999). These matters and suggested reasons for the experimental results are now discussed. Proposing that first order relations are important in children’s understanding of proportions, Spinillo and Bryant (1991) suggest that children should be successful in making judgements on proportionality using the relation â€Å"greater than†. In addition, it is suggested that the â€Å"half† boundary also has an important role in proportional decisions. Following an experiment which requested children make proportional judgements about stimuli which either crossed or did not cross the â€Å"half† boundary, it was found that children aged from approximately 6 years were able to reason relatively easily concerning proportions which crossed the â€Å"half† boundary. From these results, it was drawn that children tend to establish part-part first order relations to deal with proportion tasks (eg. reasoning that one box contains â€Å"more blue than white† bricks). It was also suggested that the use of the â€Å"half† boundary formed a fi rst reference to children’s understanding of part-whole relations (eg. reasoning that a box contained â€Å"half blue, half white† bricks). No express deviation from continuous proportions was used in this experiment and, therefore, the only matter which can be drawn from this result is that children as young as 6 years old can reason about continuous proportions. In a follow up experiment, Spinillo and Bryant (1999) again utilised their â€Å"half† boundary paradigm with the addition of continuous and discrete proportion conditions. Materials used in the experiment were of an isomorphic nature. The results broadly mirrored Spinillo and Bryant’s (1991) initial study, in which it was noted that the â€Å"half† boundary was important in solving of proportional problems. This also held for discrete proportions in the experiment despite performance on these tasks scoring poorly overall. Children could, however, establish that half of a continuous quantity is identical to half of a discrete quantity, supporting the idea that the â€Å"half† boundary is crucial to reasoning about proportions (Spinillo Bryant, 1991, 1999). Due to the similar nature of materials used in this experiment, a further research question was posited in order to establish whether a similar task with non-isomorphic constituents would have any impac t on the ability of participants to reason with continuous proportions (Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001). Using models of pizza and chocolates for the continuous and discrete conditions respectively, participants carried out a matching task where they were required to match the ratio in the experimenters’ model with their own in either an isomorphic (pizza to pizza) or non-isomorphic (chocolate to pizza) condition. In similar results to the previous experiments, it was found that participants had less problems dealing with continuous proportions than discrete proportions. In addition, performance was superior in the isomorphic condition compared to the non-isomorphic condition. An interesting finding, however, is that problems involving â€Å"half† were successfully resolved, irrespective of condition, further adding credence to the importance of this feature. Due to participants in this experiment being slightly younger than those in Spinillo and Bryant’s (1991, 1999) experiments, it is argued that the â€Å"half† boundary may be used for proportional reasoning tasks at a very early age (Singer-Freeman Goswami, 2001). In addition to the previously reviewed literature, there is a vast body of evidence the difficulty of discrete proportional reasoning compared to continuous proportional reasoning in young children. Yet to be identified, however, is a firm reason as to why this is the case. Two specific suggestions as to why discrete reasoning appears more difficult than continuous reasoning are now discussed. The first suggestion is based on a theory posited by Modestou and Gagatsis (2007) related to the improper use of contextual knowledge. An error occurs when certain knowledge, applicable to a certain context, is used in a setting to which it is not applicable. A particular problem identified with this form of reasoning is that it is difficult to correct (Modestou Gagatsis, 2007). This theory is applied to proportional reasoning by Boyer et al, (2008), who suggest that the reason children find it difficult to reason with discrete proportions is because they use absolute numerical equivalence to explain proportional problems. Continuous proportion problems are presumably easier due to the participants using a proportional schema to solve the problem, whereas discrete proportions are answered using a numerical equivalence schema where it is not applicable. An altogether different suggestion for the issue is made by Jeong et al, (2007), invoking Fuzzy trace theory (Brainerd Reyna, 1990; Reyna Brainerd, 1993). The argument posited is that children focus more on the number of target partitions in the discrete task, whilst ignoring the area that the target partitions cover. It is the area that is of most relevance to the proportion task and, therefore, focussing on area would be the correct outcome. Instead, children appear to instinctively focus on the number of partitions, whilst ignoring their relevance (Jeong et al., 2007), thereby performing poorly on the task. From proportions to fractions In tandem with children’s difficulties in relation to discrete proportions, there is a wealth of evidence supporting the notion that fractions prove difficult at all levels of education (Gabriel et al., 2013; Siegler, Fazio, Bailey, Zhou, 2013; Siegler, Thompson, Schneider, 2011). Several theories of mathematical development exist, although only some propose suggestions as to why this may be the case. The three main bodies of theory in respect of mathematical development are privileged domain theories (eg. Wynn, 1995b), conceptual change theories (eg. Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010) and integrated theories (eg, Siegler, Thompson, Schneider, 2011). In addition to the representation of fractions within established mathematical theory, a further dichotomy exists in respect to how fractions are taught in schools. It is argued that the majority of teaching of fractions is carried out via a largely procedural method, meaning that children are taught how to manipulate fractions with out being fully aware of the conceptual rules by which they operate (Gabriel et al., 2012). Discussion in this section of the paper will focus on how fractions are interpreted within these theories, the similarities and differences therein, together with how teaching methods can contribute to better overall understanding of fractions. Within privileged domain theories, development of understanding of fractions is viewed as secondary to and inherently distinct from the development of whole numbers (Leslie, Gelman, Gallistel, 2008; Siegler et al., 2011; Wynn, 1995b). As previously examined, it is argued that humans have an innate system of numerical understanding which specifically relates to positive integers, he basis of privileged domain theory being that positive integers are â€Å"psychologically privileged numerical entities† (Siegler et al., 2011, p. 274). Wynn (1995b) suggests that difficulty exists with learning fractions due to the fact that children struggle to conceive of them as discrete numerical entities. This argument is similar to that of Gelman and Williams (1998, as cited in Siegler et al., 2011) who suggest that the knowledge of integers presents barriers to learning about other types of number, due to distinctly different properties (eg. assumption of unique succession). Presumably, priv ileged domain theory views the fact that integers are viewed as being distinct in nature from any other type of numerical entity is the very reason for children having difficulty in learning fractions, as their main basis of numerical understanding prior to encountering fractions is integers. Whilst similar to privileged domain theories in some respects, conceptual change theories are also distinct. The basis of conceptual change theories is that concepts and relationships between concepts are not static, but change over time (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). In essence, protagonists of conceptual change do not necessarily dismiss the ideas of privileged domain theories, but allow freedom for concepts (eg. integers) and relationships between concepts (eg. assumption of unique succession) to be altered in order to accommodate new information, albeit that such accommodation can take a substantial period of time to occur (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). Support for conceptual change theory is found in the failure of children to comprehend the infinite number of fractions or decimals between two integers (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010). It is argued that the reason for this relates to the previously manifested knowledge of integer relations (Vamvakoussi Vosniadou, 2010) and that it is closely related to a concept designated as the â€Å"whole number bias† (Ni Zhou, 2005). The â€Å"whole number bias† can be defined as a tendency to utilise schema specifically for reasoning with integers to reason with fractions (Ni Zhou, 2005) and has been referred to in a number of studies as a possible cause of problems for children’s reasoning with fractions (eg. Gabriel et al., 2013; Meert, Grà ©goire, Noà «l, 2010). Siegler et al, (2011) propose an integrated theory to account for the development of numerical reasoning generally. It is suggested by this theory that the development of understanding of both fractions and whole numbers occurs in tandem with the development of procedural understanding in relation to these concepts. The theory claims that â€Å"numerical development involves coming to understand that all real numbers have magnitudes that can be ordered and assigned specific locations on number lines† (Siegler et al., 2011, p. 274). This understanding is said to occur gradually by means of a progression from an understanding of characteristic elements (eg. an understanding that whole numbers hold specific properties distinct from other types of number) to distinguishing between essential features (eg. different properties of all numbers, specifically their magnitudes) (Siegler et al., 2011). In contrast to the foregoing privileged domain and conceptual change theories, the inte grated theory views acquisition of knowledge concerning fractions as a fundamental course of numerical development (Siegler et al., 2011). Supporting evidence for this theory comes from Mix, Levine and Huttenlocher (1999), who report an experiment where children successfully completed fraction reasoning tasks in tandem with whole number reasoning tasks. A high correlation between performances on both tasks is reported and it is suggested that this supports the existence of a shared latent ability (Mix et al., 1999). One matter which appears continuously in fraction studies is the pedagogical method of delivering fraction education. A number of researchers have argued that teaching methods can have a significant impact on the ability of pupils to acquire knowledge about fractions (Chan, Leu, Chen, 2007; Gabriel et al., 2012). It is argued that the teaching of fractions falls into two distinct categories, teaching of conceptual knowledge and teaching of procedural knowledge (Chan et al., 2007; Gabriel et al., 2012). In an intervention study, Gabriel et al, (2012) segregated children into two distinct groups, the experimental group receiving extra tuition in relation to conceptual knowledge of fractions, with the control group following the regular curriculum. The experimental results suggested that improved conceptual knowledge of fractions (eg. equivalence) allowed children to perform better when presented with fraction problems (Gabriel et al., 2012). This outcome supports the view that more ef fort should be made to teach conceptual knowledge about fractions, prior to educating children about procedural matters and performance on fractional reasoning may be improved. Conclusion and suggestions for future research In this review, the process of how children come to understand and reason with numerical magnitude, progressing to proportion and finally fractions has been examined. The debate concerning the innateness of numerical reasoning has been discussed, together with how children understand magnitude at a young age. It has been established that children as young as six months old appear to have a preference to impossible numerical outcomes, although it remains unclear as to why this is. The debate remains ongoing as to whether infants are reasoning mathematically, or simply have a preference for novel situations. Turning to proportional reasoning, evidence suggests a clear issue when children are reasoning with discrete proportions as opposed to continuous ones. Finally, evidence concerning how children reason with fractions and the problems therein was examined in the context of three theories of mathematical development. Evidence shows that all of the theories can be supported to some ext ent. A brief section was devoted to how teaching practice effects children’s learning of fractions and it was established that problems exist in terms of how fractions are taught, with too much emphasis placed on procedure and not enough placed on conceptual learning. With the foregoing in mind, the following research questions are suggested to be a good starting point for future experiments: How early should we implement teaching of fraction concepts? Evidence from Mix et al, (1999) suggests that children as young as 5 years old can reason with fractions and it may be beneficial to children’s education to teach them earlier; Should fractions be taught with more emphasis on conceptual knowledge? References Bailey, D. H., Hoard, M. K., Nugent, L., Geary, D. C. (2012). Competence with fractions predicts gains in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113, 447–455. Booth, J., Siegler, R. 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